Albert Hofmann History: More Than The Discoverer of LSD

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Albert Hofmann (1906-2008), Swiss chemist and discoverer of LSD, left an indelible mark on the history of science, culture and pharmacology. His discovery of LSD in 1938 transformed the perception of psychoactive substances in the West, challenging the boundaries between therapy, counterculture and spiritual exploration.

We discover its history in this article written by Jorge Melero and Jorge Escohotado, directors of La Emboscadura, the monographic publishing house of Antonio Escohotado, who, in addition to being the author of the celebrated work History of Drugswas a close friend of Albert Hofmann.

A visionary scientist in times of change

The figure of Albert Hofmann (1906-2008) is located in a complex historical context, in which the dialogue between science and culture was in full transformation. Hofmann, a Swiss chemist linked to the prestigious pharmaceutical company Sandoz, is remembered for the discovery of lysergic acid diethylamide(LSD), a compound that would not only change the West’s perception of certain psychoactive substances, but would eventually call into question the very notion of “drug” and the boundaries between therapy, inner exploration and counterculture.

Unlike in antiquity, when the concept of pharmakon encompassed both remedy and poison, modern society conceived a rigid division between the toxic drug, morally questionable, and the legitimate medicine, regulated by the State. LSD took this tension to the extreme, demonstrating once again that no classification is static or definitive.

Albert Hofmann’s beginnings: Nature, chemistry and ergot research

Albert Hofmann was born on January 11, 1906, in Baden, Switzerland, and showed from an early age an inclination towards nature, organic chemistry and the search for the mysteries hidden in the relationship between man and his environment. His university education at the University of Zurich gave him the basic tools to enter pharmacological research. Already at Sandoz, in the city of Basel, Hofmann began to study the alkaloids of ergot(Claviceps purpurea), a fungus with a rich tradition in European pharmacopoeia and which, since classical times, had aroused interest due to its ambiguous properties, both curative and dangerous (Escohotado, 1998).

Rye ergot. Note: Ergot (*Claviceps purpurea*) is a fungus that grows on cereal grains, especially rye, which produces toxic alkaloids. These compounds were responsible for a devastating disease in the Middle Ages called St. Anthony’s Fire or ergotism. The disease mainly affected people who consumed bread or other foods made with grains contaminated by this fungus, and its symptoms included hallucinations, muscle spasms, convulsions and, in severe cases, gangrene, due to the extreme contraction of blood vessels. Although ergot was feared for its toxicity, it was also used in small doses as a remedy.

The Discovery of LSD: From Intuition to Revolution

In 1938, Hofmann synthesized for the first time LSD-25, a derivative of ergoline, a kind of ergot alkaloid. It was the 25th compound synthesized by the Swiss chemist during his research with lysergic acid derivatives, today referred to simply as LSD.

At the time, the finding did not attract much attention: the compound did not seem to be of immediate therapeutic use and was shelved. However, Hofmann, guided by an intuition that he himself would describe as a kind of “inner call“, decided to return to the substance five years later. It was precisely in the spring of 1943, in the midst of the global chaos of World War II, that he made a new synthesis and experienced a chance contact with small quantities of the compound. This episode would mark a turning point, as Hofmann perceived perceptive and sensory alterations that were as surprising as they were disturbing.

Hofmann ingested a dose of 0.25 milligrams (250 micrograms) of LSD, an extremely high amount for a substance as potent as LSD, with effective microdoses starting at as little as 20 micrograms.

Three days later, on April 19, 1943, he decided to deliberately self-administer a minimal dose of LSD to understand its effects. The famous bicycle ride from the laboratory to his home, remembered as “Bicycle Day“, would become a sort of foundational milestone of psychedelic research. That sensory, introspective and profoundly transformative experience showed that LSD could alter consciousness in an unprecedented way, opening the door to new fields of psychiatric, psychological and philosophical research.

LSD History: From Therapeutic Research to Cultural Revolution

The reception of LSD was at first ambiguous. During the 1950s, the world was experiencing the effects of the post-war period and the rise of modern psychiatry. Psychiatrists, neurologists and psychologists explored its therapeutic potential with an interest reminiscent of ancient practices, where no sharp division was drawn between remedy and visionary substance. LSD entered an academic and medical circuit: it was used to treat addictions such as alcoholism, resistant depressions and other disorders, with mixed but promising results (Carod-Artal, 2013).

However, this medical and scientific enthusiasm was overtaken by the cultural and political dynamics of the 1960s. Under the influence of great figures such as Timothy Leary, Aldous Huxley or Ken Kessey, LSD transcended the clinical realm and became a symbol, a catalyst for cultural revolution, political protest and spiritual exploration.

Historic photo of the Human Be-In (1967), a landmark event that took place on January 14, 1967 in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park. This event brought together thousands of people, including prominent figures from the beat generation and the hippie counterculture, to celebrate and promote peace, love and the exploration of consciousness. It is considered one of the precursor events to the 1967 Summer of Love, which marked the rise of the hippie movement. Exhibited at the National American Museum of American History, Washington DC. — Human Be-In (1967) was an event held in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park that marked a milestone in the counterculture of the 1960s and was key to popularizing LSD as a symbol of spiritual exploration and cultural protest. It was attended by figures such as Timothy Leary, who uttered his famous phrase “Turn on, tune in, drop out”: a call to awaken consciousness, tune in to authentic values and abandon oppressive structures in order to live more freely and in alignment with oneself.

The massive and indiscriminate adoption of LSD provoked the concern of figures such as Albert Hofmann himself, who warned about the irresponsible use of the substance outside a controlled therapeutic framework.

Hofmann’s concern about the use of LSD

Hofmann himself repeatedly expressed his concern about the irresponsible use of the substance outside the therapeutic context. In his memoirs, he stressed that LSD could be a “medicine of the soul“, provided it was used with rigor, respect, clear guidelines and supervision, reminiscent of the prudent attitude of Hippocratic physicians or the religious regulation of ancient cults. However, in the face of youthful euphoria and scandalized authorities, medical research was soon hindered. Just as in classical Rome the Bacchic cult went from being a festive celebration to becoming an object of persecution (Escohotado, 2021, p. 140), LSD went from therapeutic recognition to the status of a prohibited and demonized drug.

Clandestine programs and political double standards

The signing of international conventions and the tightening of domestic regulations in multiple countries, including the United States, placed LSD in Schedule I of controlled substances, assimilating it to compounds with no recognized medical value and a high potential for abuse (Hofmann et al., 2013).

Paradoxically, while its study was restricted in academic circles, government entities such as the CIA carried out clandestine programs – such as the famous MK-Ultra – using LSD for purposes of mind control, espionage and psychological warfare, which shows the double standards often adopted by political power (Hinojosa, 2022, p. 4).

The psychedelic renaissance of the 21st century

Towards the end of the 20th century, and with greater emphasis in the 21st century, the situation slowly began to change. New research, supported by growing evidence of the therapeutic potential of psychedelic substances in controlled environments, has led to a renewed scientific interest in LSD, psilocybin and related compounds. This renaissance recalls Hofmann’s warning about the need to overcome prejudices and explore pharmacology with rigor and curiosity, not for the purpose of “intoxicating” society, but to find valuable tools for mental health, creativity and self-knowledge.

Antonio Escohotado and Albert Hofmann maintained a close friendship for years. Hofmann is the Swiss scientist who discovered LSD. Escohotado, a Spanish philosopher, is the author of Historia General de las Drogas, one of the best books on the subject. — Antonio Escohotado and Albert Hofmann maintained a close friendship for years. Escohotado, a Spanish philosopher, is the author of Historia General de las Drogas, one of the best books on the subject.

The friendship between Albert Hofmann and Antonio Escohotado

It is almost imperative to mention Hofmann’s beautiful friendship with the Madrid thinker Antonio Escohotado, with whom he shared such a close intellectual and spiritual affinity that they used to call each other “father and son“. Both deeply admired each other and found in their conversations fertile ground for exploring the philosophical, cultural and therapeutic implications of entheogens.

On one memorable occasion, Hofmann, Escohotado, Jonathan Ott and Alexander Shulgin, father of MDMA and 2C-B -and writer of the works PiHKAL and TiHKAL whose reprint will be published by La Emboscadura this coming month-, coincided at the El Escorial Summer Courses. These subjects were the four most important people in the world in the pharmacological field. It is precisely in the works we have mentioned where this experience is told from the point of view of both Shulgin and Escohotado:

On at least two occasions the Felipe II was a hotel invaded by psychedelia, where not only students, but secretaries, barman and elevator operator exchanged experiences with the speakers. Held on the eve of the day off, these intakes were made by calculating peaks and plateaus of each product, so that the altitude began to rise around 3 o’clock, and as far as I know everyone traveled satisfactorily in spite of being many. (Shulgin, 2025).

After discovering LSD, Hofmann continued to work at Sandoz as director of research in the Natural Products Department until he retired in 1971. In addition to discovering LSD, he was the first to synthesize psilocybin (an active component of hallucinogenic mushrooms) in 1958; he discovered other hallucinogenic principles of Ololiuqui(Morning Glory), lysergic acid amide and lysergic acid hydroxyethylamide. He also contributed to the development of drugs such as Hydergine (for cerebral circulation) and Dihydroergotamine (to stabilize blood pressure).

In 1979, Hofmann published his book My Problem Child (a work reflecting on the discovery of LSD and the events that made it a symbol of the counterculture. The book was written when the substance was banned and its research severely restricted, and offers a personal and critical view of LSD’s therapeutic uses, its cultural impact and the controversies surrounding its popularization. Hofmann believed that LSD had great potential to address modern psychological problems, such as connection, materialism, and purposelessness in contemporary society, and felt that its discovery should be used in therapeutic and spiritual, not recreational, contexts. A work considered fundamental to understanding both the science and philosophy behind LSD.

The legacy of Albert Hofmann

Albert Hofmann died in 2008, at the age of 102, having witnessed the entire historical arc of LSD: from its discovery in a modest laboratory synthesis, to its enthronement as a countercultural icon, its legal proscription and its slow resurgence in the clinical field. His figure embodies the paradox of the phármakon. in modernity: a substance capable of arousing fears, dogmas and prohibitions while at the same time holding a therapeutic and spiritual promise. Thus, Hofmann’s legacy invites us to reflect critically on prohibitionist policies, moral visions and the importance of a dispassionate, evidence-based analysis that allows us to harmonize the needs of public health, individual freedom and scientific progress.

History of Drug Prohibition

Thus, in evoking the story of Albert Hofmann and LSD, we return to a fundamental dilemma: which substances deserve to be pursued, revered, understood or studied? The answer, like so many others in the field of psychoactives, is complex. But the figure of Hofmann reminds us that, if legal barriers and political inertia are not revised, we run the risk of losing valuable opportunities to improve the understanding of human consciousness, thus perpetuating the collective blindness to tools that, if well used, could have a positive impact on the well-being and freedom of the individual.

Jorge Melero and Jorge Escohotado (Los Emboscados), in Madrid on 28/12/2024

Bibliography

Carod-Artal, F. J. (2013). Psychoactive plants in ancient Greece. Neurosciences and History, 1(1), 28-38.
Escohotado, A. (1998). Historia general de las drogas. Espasa.
Escohotado. A. (2021). Majesties, crimes and victims. Emboscadura editorial.
Hofmann, A., Wasson, R.G., Ruck, C. (2013). The road to Eleusis. A solution to the riddle of the mysteries. Fondo de cultura económica.
Hinojosa, M. (2020). Timothy Leary. The high priest of the new consciousness. Cannabis Magazine.
Shulgin, A. (2025) TiHKAL. Narrative part. The Ambush.